1. Introduction
Different definitions and interpretations of daydreaming and mind wandering have emerged from
past research. In this paper both terms will be treated similarly as being equal to one another as
current study considers daydreams to be wandering minds and wandering minds to be daydreams.
The term daydreaming is associated with multiple disadvantages, according to most studies
(McMillan, Kaufman, Singer, 2013). However, since mind wandering occupies nearly half of our
waking time (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010), it seems plausible that the outcomes of this kind of
mental imagery are not solely negative for a person’s condition. As a matter of fact, the most
investigated association with daydreaming is the impact of a wandering mind on human creativity
(add a few references here to support your claim regarding high frequency of research).
The process of creative thinking refers to the sequence of cognitive activities that can result
in novel, yet useful products in a given problem context (Lubart, 2000–2001). Several studies
found that daydreams or wandering minds, preceding tasks or cognitive problem solutions, can
enhance creativity (references). When someone is daydreaming, the person engages in sudden
thoughts that are not related to the current context (Zedelius & Schooler, 2016), while mind
wandering has been described as daydreaming that takes place during the performance of another
task. It is essential to distinguish between alternative styles of mind wandering and different stages
in the creative process to fully understand the relationship between the phenomena of daydreaming
and creativity (Zedelius & Schooler, 2016).
Present-day research falls short on taking into consideration that daydreams vary in style
and content (Zedelius & Schooler, 2016). A novel perspective on the creative process emphasizes
the importance of the mechanisms trough which different types of daydreams can facilitate several
distinct creative processes. The cognitive process underlying mind wandering can be divided into
task related thought and task unrelated thought. Task unrelated thinking entails thought directed
away from the current situation (Smallwood, Obonsawin & Heim, 2003); for example, a daydream
about a memory of a certain holiday in the past. Task related thinking also consist of self-generated
thought, but involves a certain degree of relevance with regard to the task. This task related train
of thought can involve cognitive processes, such as brainstorming for a certain solution or strategy
in order to achieve the task (Smallwood, Obonsawin & Heim, 2003). In general, task related
thought refers to both the focus on the task and task related mind wandering. However, current
research uses the terms task related thoughts (TRT) and task unrelated thoughts (TUT) for different
types of mind wandering. The other form of task related thought, will be stated as task focus related
thought in this paper. Thus, task related thought refers to task related mind wandering, indicating
task related and self-generated thought with regard to the task. More specifically, when you catch
yourself daydreaming or mind wandering about the task and not when you are deliberately
focusing on the task solution/idea. An example of task related mind wandering is ‘GRR!?! What
is the point of this task?’ (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015). The goal of this study is to investigate
whether there is a difference in output in creative ideas, when people are mind wandering task
related or task unrelated. Thus, this research focuses on the possible difference in creative solutions,
depending on the type of mind wandering.
Despite the existence of multiple definitions of creativity, according to a wide range of
research on the creative process, it entails people who use their knowledge and expertise to rely
on their cognitive capabilities to create outcomes (ideas, insights, products) that are both original
and useful (Baas & Maas, 2015). This broad process definition of creativity distinguishes between
creative outcomes, the role of expertise, knowledge and cognitive skills. A comprehensive review
of past literature reveals that the key cognitive processes held to contribute to creative thinking can
be summarized in four phases: problem analysis, idea generation, evaluation, and implementation
(Zeng, Proctor & Salvendy, 2011). Although creativity seems an abstract phenomenon, there are
two key elements considered essential for a creative prediction; originality and usefulness
(Sternberg, 1999; Diedrich, Benedek, Jauk & Neubauer, 2015). For a creative product to be useful
within a business context it must also adequately tackle real-world issues that occur in several
industries.
However, there are practically no creativity tests that measure both originality and
usefulness within the frame of creativity (Baas & Maas, 2015). Studies that found a positive
relationship between daydreaming and creativity mostly experimented with psychometric tasks,
but creative problem solving requires a lot of processes that are not covered by these psychometric
tasks. A study by Zeng, Proctor and Salvendy (2011) even concluded that the traditional divergent
thinking tests are a weak indicator of real-world creativity. The problem that arises from this is the
low external validity of the previously used tests in past and contemporary research. A skeptical
view on past research might question what we really know about the relation between mind
wandering and creativity. Previous studies have shown a relation between mind wandering and
creativity, but the applied tasks of measurements have their shortcomings.
This study aims to investigate the creative output in terms of both originality and usefulness
after a period of task related and task unrelated thoughts. The problems to be solved will
demonstrate a creative design task and the evaluation of the output will be done through Maximum
Difference Scaling (MaxDiff) by domain experts. This form of analysis by experts in the field will
assess the creative output of the results in terms of originality and usefulness. The current study
strives towards a scientific contribution that helps individuals to get the most out of their own
creative capabilities. A high level of external validity is necessary for the reflection of the creative
output on real-world problem solving. Creativity is characterized by originality and usefulness,
but it is the latter aspect that determines whether the idea can actually be applied on a societal level.
The current study aims to address the following research question:
Is there a relation between task related and task unrelated daydreams and the originality
and usefulness of creative design ideas?
2. Theoretical Background
The production of creative ideas involves multiple cognitive processes. Despite the existence of
cross-domain differences in the influence of particular process operations, creative thinking
involves four key processes: problem analysis, idea generation, evaluation, and implementation
(Zeng, Proctor & Salvendy, 2011). The process of conceptual combination might also play an
important role, since knowledge emerges from conceptual combination that allows for idea
generation and evaluation (Mumford, Medeiros & Partlow, 2012). This study emphasizes the
processes of idea generation and idea evaluation and is congruent with the notion that it is not
sufficient just to generate ideas. Ideas must also be evaluated and solutions in a problem context
should be based on these ideas (Basadur, Runco & Vega, 2000; Osburn & Mumford, 2006). While
in theory it is argued that generation and evaluation are executed sequentially, it seems more likely
that the creative process has a more reciprocal nature. This means that individuals go back and
forth between the processes for the production of creative problem solutions and ideas. When the
current process is intermitted or interrupted, it can have consequences for the execution of the
other cognitive process. When a wandering mind hinders, interrupts or distorts the cognitive step(s)
during creative thought, this might result in consequences for the creative process and idea
production as a whole.
The distinction of multiple cognitive processes during creative
thought gave rise to current model based on earlier work (Mumford,
Mobley, Reiter-Palmon, Uhlman & Doares, 1991; Mumford et al., 2012).
This model assumes that creative thought begins with a problem analysis
where the problem is defined, information is gathered and concepts are
selected to understand the information. These concepts enable a
fundament for conceptual combination, which elicits new knowledge that
allows for idea generation and evaluation. When viable ideas have
emerged, implementation planning takes place with individuals
conveying their ideas in a real-world problem context. Ideally, the final
output entails original and useful problem solutions of applicable nature.
Idea generation and idea evaluation
A core aspect of the creative process is the ability to generate ideas (Aurum & Gardiner,
2003). The process of generating ideas addresses partly to divergent thought. Divergent thinking
refers to the thought process when exploring many possible solutions to come up with original
ideas. Divergent thinking should not be viewed the same as creative thinking, because divergent
thinking results in originality and originality is a main characteristic of creativity (Runco & Acar,
2012). Therefore, divergent thought serves as an indicator or predictor of creative potential.
Several studies (Moore, 1985; Runco & Okuda, 1988) have investigated the relation between
problem solving and divergent thinking. Razoumnikova (2000) suggested that during divergent
thought people use lots of unique ways to generate creative products. Due to the broad and
widespread nature of divergent thinking it occurs in the early stages of creative thought processes,
the phase of idea generation. An individual is considering as many (unconventional) options
possible during divergent thought before choosing a definite solution. Many scientists (from
Aristotle to present day) have claimed that the development of thinking includes moving from one
idea to another via a chain of thoughts and associations (Aurum & Gardinder, 2003). An
individual’s capacity for solving a problem can therefore be explained by their capacity for
generating associations. Brainstorming is an example of a process that involves divergent thinking
by generating and combining concepts through possible associations.