Intellau_Celistic
5'3 KHHV Mentalcel
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Sentence:
Paragraph:
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Composition:
SENTENCES
87. Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences are considered as loose, periodic, and balanced.
The Loose Sentence is so constructed that it may be closed at two or more places and yet make complete sense; as,
Napoleon felt his weakness, and tried to win back popular favor by concession after concession, until, at his fall, he had nearly restored parliamentary government.
Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. weakness, favor, and concession, as well as after government.
88. The Periodic Sentence holds the complete thought in suspense until the close of the sentence. Compare the following periodic sentence with the loose sentence under §87:
Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored parliamentary government.
Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible.
89. The Balanced Sentence is made up of parts similar in form, but often contrasted in meaning; as, He is a man; Jones is a gentleman.
90. Sentence Length. As to the length of the sentence there is no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in their thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if there is a succession of short sentences, choppiness Page 118 and roughness are the result. One should carefully examine sentences which contain more than thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear in their meaning and accurate in their construction.
Paragraph:
141. The Paragraph is a connected series of sentences all dealing with the development of a single topic. Where the general subject under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute the whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of subtopics, each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. For each one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be made.
The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change of topic at each new paragraph.
142. Paragraph Length. There is no fixed rule governing the proper length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need be more than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition is not more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will not often need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, paragraphing should be more frequent than in other compositions.
Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic.
143. Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be set off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose—to aid in gaining clearness.
Page 149 144. Paragraphing of Speech. In a narrative, each direct quotation, together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed in writing a conversation. Examine the following:
A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. During the meal the hostess asked:
"Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?"
"Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs."
"Then have some more," said the woman.
The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the example just given.
145. Indentation of the Paragraph. The first sentence of each new paragraph should be indented. See example under §144. No other sentence should be so indented.
146. The essential qualities which each paragraph should have are: Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis.
Unity. Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with only one subject, and should include nothing which does not have a direct bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, the italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, very obviously it belongs to some other paragraph:
Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm than the Irish. St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to have banished the snakes from the island. So enthusiastic were the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and monasteries....
Page 150 Separate paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs together. If the ideas can all be fairly included under one general topic, unity demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, in describing the route followed in a certain journey, one should not use a separate paragraph for each step in the journey.
Wrong:
In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland.
Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running from Cleveland to Detroit.
From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train the next morning.
If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and manner of expression.
147. How to Gain Unity. Careful thought before beginning the paragraph is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of the paragraph should be determined, and should be clearly indicated by a topic sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed near the beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the clearest and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a formal statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any sentence that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph.
With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by illustration; or by showing cause or effect.
148. Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the quality of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized.
Page 151 To rule was not enough for Bonaparte. He wanted to amaze, to dazzle, to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, and unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not have satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted to reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency inspires.
Spelling/Pronunciation:
WORDS.—SPELLING.—PRONUNCIATION
188. To write and to speak good English, one must have a good working vocabulary. He must know words and be able to use them correctly; he must employ only words that are in good use; he must be able to choose words and phrases that accurately express his meaning; and he must be able to spell and pronounce correctly the words that he uses.
Words
189. Good Use. The first essential that a word should have, is that it be in good use. A word is in good use when it is used grammatically and in its true sense, and is also:
(1) Reputable; in use by good authors and writers in general. The use of a word by one or two good writers is not sufficient to make a word reputable; the use must be general.
(2) National; not foreign or local in its use.
(3) Present; used by the writers of one's own time.
190. Offenses against Good Use. The offenses against good use are usually said to be of three classes: Solecisms, Barbarisms, and Improprieties.
191. Solecisms are the violations of the principles of grammar. Solecisms have been treated under the earlier chapters on grammar.
192. Barbarisms. The second offense against good use, a barbarism, is a word not in reputable, present or national use. The following rules may be given on this subject:
1. Avoid obsolete words. Obsolete words are words that, once in good use, have since passed out of general use. Page 186 This rule might also be made to include obsolescent words: words that are at present time passing out of use. Examples of obsolete words:
methinks yesterwhiles twixt yclept afeard shoon
2. Avoid newly coined expressions or new uses of old expressions. There are a great many words current in the newspapers and in other hasty writing that have not the sanction of general good use at the present time, though many of these words may in time come into use. A safe rule is to avoid all words that are at all doubtful. Examples:
an invite an exposé a try enthuse a combine fake
A common newspaper fault is the coining of a verb or adjective from a noun, or a noun from a verb. Examples:
locomote suicided derailment pluralized burglarized refereed
3. Avoid foreign words. A foreign word should not be used until it has become naturalized by being in general, reputable use. Since there are almost always English words just as expressive as the foreign words, the use of the foreign words usually indicates affectation on the part of the one using them. Examples:
billet-doux (love letter) conversazione (conversation) ad nauseam (to disgust) distingué (distinguished) ad infinitum (infinitely) entre nous (between us)
4. Avoid provincialisms. Provincialisms are expressions current and well understood in one locality, but not current or differently understood in another locality. Examples:
guess (think) reckon (suppose) near (stingy) smart (clever) tuckered (tired out) lift (elevator) tote (carry) ruination (ruin)
Page 187 5. Avoid vulgarisms. Vulgarisms are words whose use shows vulgarity or ignorance. Such words as the following are always in bad taste:
chaw nigger your'n gal flustrated hadn't oughter haint dern his'n
6. Avoid slang. Slang is a form of vulgarism that is very prevalent in its use even by educated people. Slang words, it is true, sometimes come into good repute and usage, but the process is slow. The safest rule is to avoid slang expressions because of their general bad taste and because of their weakening effect on one's vocabulary of good words. Examples of slang:
grind swipe booze long green on a toot dough pinch peach dukes
7. Avoid clipped or abbreviated words. The use of such words is another form of vulgarism. Examples:
pard (partner) rep (reputation) doc (doctor) cal'late (calculate) musee (museum) a comp (complimentary ticket)
8. Avoid technical or professional words. Such words are usually clearly understood only by persons of one class or profession. Examples:
valence hagiology allonge kilowatt sclerosis estoppel
193. When Barbarisms May be Used. In the foregoing rules barbarisms have been treated as at all times to be avoided. This is true of their use in general composition, and in a measure true of their use in composition of a special nature. But barbarisms may sometimes be used properly. Obsolete words would be permissible in poetry or in historical Page 188 novels, technical words permissible in technical writing, and even vulgarisms and provincialisms permissible in dialect stories.
Exercise 76
Composition:
177. By the term Whole Composition or Theme is meant a composition consisting of a number of related paragraphs all dealing with one general subject, whether the composition be a narration, a description, or an exposition.
The following general principles applying to the construction of the whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced writer.
178. Statement of Subject. Care should be used in the statement of the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some limited phase of that subject:
Too broad: College, Photography, Picnics.
Properly limited: A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How Picnics Help the Doctor.
179. The Outline. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine, if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully made plan is necessary before entering on the construction; so in the writing of an essay or theme, there should be made some plan or outline, which will determine what different things are to be discussed, and what is to be the method of developing the discussion. By the inexperienced writer, at least, a composition should never be begun until an outline has been formed for its development. As soon as the material for the composition is in hand, the outline should Page 175 be made. It should be an aid in the construction of the composition, not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Only by the previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable proportion secured in their discussion.
In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different subtopics, were discussed:
Definition of Paragraph. How to Secure Unity. Length of Paragraph. How to Secure Coherence. The Topic Sentence. Too Frequent Paragraphing. Unity in the Paragraph. Paragraphing of Speech. Coherence in the Paragraph. Paragraphing for Emphasis. Examples of Unity. Examples showing how Unity is Destroyed. Purpose of the Paragraph. Emphasis in the Paragraph. The Paragraph Theme.
If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical outline.
THE PARAGRAPH
- Its definition and purpose.
- Its length.
Paragraphing of speech. Paragraphing for emphasis. Too frequent paragraphing. - Its essential qualities.
A. Unity.
B. Coherence.
Definition. Examples showing how unity is destroyed. How to secure unity. The topic sentence. Development of topic sentence. Examples showing unity. Page 176
C. Emphasis.
Definition. How to secure coherence. Examples showing coherence.
Places of emphasis in the paragraph. - Practical construction of the paragraph.
- The paragraph theme.
180. Use and Qualities of the Outline. The use of the outline is not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration, the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently be followed with very good reason.
In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general description is given, and then followed by a statement of various details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular description might be made of its details of arrangement and peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation.
The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline should present a few main topics to which all others either lead up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long as it is a logical and natural one.
The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter, and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. Page 177 A too detailed outline tends to make the composition stiff and formal.
The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main topics.
181. The Beginning of the Composition. To choose a method of beginning a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, direct beginning is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to indicate to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine the following methods of beginning.
