This paper by Krzysztof Kościński presents a comprehensive review of universal patterns observed in facial preferences and attractiveness. The article emphasizes the shift in the study of facial attractiveness from a philosophical and artistic endeavor to a scientific one, highlighting its considerable interpersonal and social effects. The article suggests that preferences toward certain facial features are adaptive and allow individuals to identify reproductively fit partners.
Key Components of Facial Attractiveness:
- Averageness and Symmetry:
- Both males and females find average faces appealing, which might indicate genetic quality.
- Symmetry is also considered attractive, potentially because it indicates developmental stability (the capacity to withstand environmental and genetic stressors during development).
- Femininity in Female Faces (for male raters):
- Men are generally attracted to feminized female faces.
- Feminized faces signal high estrogen and low testosterone levels, markers of reproductive health and fertility.
- Masculinity in Male Faces (for female raters):
- Women generally prefer a moderate degree of masculinity in male faces.
- Excessive masculinity might suggest higher testosterone levels, which are correlated to lower investment in family and parental care.
- Skin Condition:
- A clear complexion is considered attractive in both sexes.
- Men show a preference for light and smooth skin in women.
- Facial Hair:
- The effect of facial hair on attractiveness is inconsistent across studies.
- Facial hair is generally considered detrimental to attractiveness in women.
- Facial Expression:
- Positive expressions, such as smiling, increase facial attractiveness.
- Youthfulness:
- Youthfulness is a vital element, especially when men are assessing female faces.
- Perceived age is greatly influenced by facial proportions and skin condition.
Evolutionary Significance of Facial Preferences:
- Facial preferences are seen as adaptive features.
- They enable individuals to recognize reproductively fit partners.
- "An appropriate partner is one that has a high mate value."
- Physical appearance and sensory cues have evolved to facilitate this decision-making process.
History of Research on Facial Attractiveness:
- Phase 1: Mathematical Proportions: Early approaches focused on ideal mathematical proportions, like the golden ratio (approximately 1.618), as seen in the works of Polykleitos and later during the Renaissance by artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer. However, modern research has largely moved away from the idea that these proportions define a "beautiful" face.
- Phase 2: Psychological Perspectives: In the 1960s, psychologists disproved two myths:
- The idea that attractiveness is purely subjective was challenged by studies showing high agreement among raters in assessing facial attractiveness.
- The notion that attractiveness has little social significance was contradicted by findings that physical attractiveness significantly influences interpersonal interactions and perceptions ("what is beautiful is good" stereotype).
- Phase 3: Biological/Evolutionary Approach: Inspired by sociobiology and sexual selection theory in the 1970s, research began to link attractiveness to biological fitness, health, and reproductive ability. Researchers explored connections between facial traits and factors like age, hormone levels, and genetic quality.
Research Methods in Facial Attractiveness Studies:
- Assessment of Faces:
- Using photographs, computerized images, and, less frequently, videos.
- Sometimes using faces of beauty contest competitors, models, actresses, or even works of art as stimuli.
- Facialmetric Methods: Measuring specific facial features (distances, angles) using calipers and computer software.
- Principal Component Analysis & Geometric Morphometrics: Describing facial shape using mathematically calculated factors or the location coordinates of essential points (landmarks).
- Image Manipulation: Retouching photos, warping and morphing images, or using drawings to isolate and test the impact of specific facial features on attractiveness.
- Superimposition Techniques: Merging multiple facial photographs to create composite faces and study the effects of averageness.
